Comparatives and Superlatives

We use as...as with short and long adjectives

We add -er to short adjectives

We use more with long adjectives

We use less with short and long adjectives

We can also use not as...as (or not so...as)

When we have more than two things, we can compare them like this:

We use the before both short and long adjectives

We add -est to short adjectives

We use the most with long adjectives

When we want to add extra meaning to an adjective, we can use very, too and enough

too has negative meaning

enough has positive meaning and not...enough is negative

enough goes after adjectives but before nouns

Asking questions

yes/no questions in a yes/no question, an auxiliary verb (e.g. is, has, can) comes at the beginning, before the subject. If there is no auxiliary verb we must add do, does, did.

Don't say: Do you know where is the lesson? NO!!!

Say: Do you know where the lesson is? YES!!!

Permissions and Requests

To ask permission, you can say: Can I borrow your pen? Could I borrow your car?

To make a request you can say: Can you lend me your pen? - Could you lend me your car? - Would you...

To make a request even more polite you can begin: I wonder if... this must be followed by could or would

(e.g.) I wonder if I could borrow your car; I wonder if you could lend me your car.

Ability in the present and future(40)

We use can to talk about two sort of things we are able to do:

1. general abilities

2. particular things we are able to do in the present or future

We often use can before verbs like see, hear and smell

Be able to has a similar meaning to can but is rather more formal.

Abilities in the past

When we make statements or ask questions about the past, we use could to talk about general abilities.

For particular actions we use able to. If it was something difficult, we often say menage to (negative: didn't menage to)

Agree

I suppose so

That's a good idea

Disagree

I'm not sure

Perhaps it's petter if we...

Have something done

We use the structure have (something) done when the verb applies to the noun that goes just before it (e.g. she has her hair cut). Here the verbs applies to her hair not to she.

We use the structure get (something) done in the some way. We often use get when something is difficult or unpleasant. (e.g. I think there's a hole in my tooth.- I need to get the tooth filled.

Zero conditional

'When the sun shines, people feel happy' - If it's cold and rainy, the usually feel sad.

This thins apply to a long period of time – past, present and future.

They are 'general truth'

Both parts of the sentence use the presente tense

We can use when or if to mean 'every time it happens'

The two halves of the sentence can be in either order

First conditional

'If is sunny tomorrow, we'll go to the beach'.

When we talk about something possible (but not certain in the future we use the future in one part of sentence ad if + present in the other part (if it's sunny).

When we think somthing is certain to happen, we use when instead of if.

'If I see Sally, I'll tell her”. ( I may see Sally but I'm not sure)

When I see Sally, I'll tell her” (I'm sure I'll see Sally)

Second conditional

“If I won lots of money, I'd travel round the world”.

When we talk abput something impossible ot unlikely in the future, we use would + infinitive verb in one part of the sentence (I'd travel) and if+the past simple tense in the other part (if I won).

Unless (53)

“People are not healthy unless they have enough food.”

“I'll probably pass the exam unless the question are awful

“I couldn't go round the world unless I had...

In sentence like this, we can use unless instead of if...not

Present perfect (61)

I've been there

I've bought the t-shirt

I'haven't done anything else

Have you seen anything

Yes, I have

No, I haven't

Past simple or Present Perfect

When we say when something started, we use the past simple

When we say how long it's continued for, we use the present perfe.

“We became friend when we started school” (past simple)

“Carla ad I have been friends since we started school (present perfect)

“Carla and I have been friends for seven years (present perfect)

The pairs of sentence have similar meanings, but the tenses and time expression are different, and a different verb is used (be/become). We can use for with both tenses.

“My uncle worked in London for a year, then he resigned from his job” (for = up to a time in the past).

“I have lived here for six years” (for = up to and including the present time)

Obbligation and prohibition; tlaking about rules and regulations

We can talk about rules and obligations in thre ways.

“ They have to wear uniform”

This is the most common way to talk about obligations

“They've got to wear uniform”

This is also quite common but is more formal

“They must wear uniform”

This is less common. It's often more formal

Negative rules, no rules

For rules about things we can't do, we can say mustn't, can't or aren't allowed to.

When we talk about things that we can choose not to do, we can say don't have to or haven't got to.

Direct and reported speech (80)

When we write someone said, we can do it in two ways

Direct speech

She said, “I like walking, but I don't want to go for a walk today”

“I saw Tom this morning, he said...”

Here we write the exact words that were spoken, with inverted commas (' Speech marks') around them. The reporting verb, e.g. (she) said, can come at the beginning or at the and.

Reported speech

She said (that) she liked walking, but she didn't want go for a walk that day

He said (that) he had seen Tom that morning

With reported speech there are often changes in:

The pronouns (e.g. I->she/he)

The tense (e.g. Like -> liked; don't want ->didn't want; saw -> had seen)

Expressions of time (e.g. Today -> that day; this morning -> that morning)

Expressions of place (e.g. Here -> there)

Reported speech with questions and commands

When we write a question, we can also use direct or indirect speech.

“Are you coming? He asked -> He asked if she was coming”

“When did they arrive? He asked her -> He asked her when they had arrived”

Notice the change in a word order. In direct question, the subject and verb change places. In indirect questions, they don't

When we write a command, we use the imperative form for direct speech, and the infinitive with for reported speech.

“Stop talking!” He ordered then -> He ordered them to stop talking.

“Don't move!” He said -> He told them not to move

Language spot (84)

“Charlotte still wants to live the life of a normalteeneger” - “She enjoys shopping”

When we have two verbs together, the second one can be either the infinitive (to live) or -ing form (shopping)

Because, as, since (86)

Phrases introduced by the words answer the question why?

The part of the sentence with the connecting word can come before of after the main part of the sentence

“Rita looking for a gob because/as/since she needs to save some money”

“Because/as/Since she needs to save some mone, Rita's looking for a job”.

So that, in order to

Phrases introduced by these words tell the purpose for doing something

“Rick is studying German and Spanish, He wants to work in the touris industry”

“Rick is .... so that he can get a job in the tourist industry (so that + subject + verb)

“Rick is studying ..... in order to get a job .....(in order to + to – infinitive)

Although,while (87)

“Although links two contrasting ideas. It has a similar meaning to but.

“It's raining but I'll go out anyway”

“Although it's raining, I'll go out”

We put the idea we think is most important at the end of the sentence.

“Maria's no good at English. She's very good at French”

“Although Maria's no good at English, she speaks good French”.

“Maria speaks good French although she's no good English

While can be used in similar way, but must come at the beginning of sentence

“While we find the journey tiring, he refuses to get the bus”.

So/such....that (87)

So/such... that link information about tha cause of something and the result in the same sentence

“My first job was very boring. As a result, I left”

“My first job was so boring that I left”(such + adjective + uncountable noun)

It was such a boring job that i left” (such + article + adjective + noun + that)

The past perfect

We make the past perfect with had+past participle. We use it when we want to make it clear the something happened before a particular rime in the past.

Celia had never been to Paris before. This was the first time she had been to Paris.

First time + past perfect

Bret has nevr been to Paris before, This is the first time he has been to Paris

First time + present perfect

Language spot (97)

Useful phrases for emails and letters

“Thank for your email/letter. It was great to hear from you”

“I was really plased to get your email/letter.”

“Well, you asked me to tell you about... so I'll do my best.”

“As well as that...”

“What I like most is...”

“Well that's all, i have time to wrote now...”

“Write soon / Hoping to hear you soon / Keep in touch”

It is and there is (101)

We use it to refer to something definite in the previous sentence

“Go to the Royal Hotel. It is the best hotel in town”.

Something that comes later in that sentence

“It is a dictionary”

“It is difficult to find the answer”

We also use it to talk about the time, date and weather.

“It's six o'clock”; “It's monday January 25” ; “It's snowing today”

We use there is/ there are to introduce new information

“There is a hotel in town” ; “There are some eggs in the fridge” ; “There's something burning”

Some adjectives and in either -ed or -ing. Many of of these adjectives describe feelings (page99)

When we say how a person is feeling,we use the -ed ending.

I was frightened (by the gost)

When we are talking about the thing or situation that causes the feeling, we use the -ing ending.

The gost was very frightening

2005-03-01T18:51:31